Inflammatory and metabolic breast milk profiles associated with maternal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on infant growth and development

The present study, aimed to build on the knowledge base of HEU infants, compared to HIV-unexposed-uninfected (HUU) infants. The current study determined whether inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-8, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)], and antimicrobial peptides [beta-defensin-2, lactoferrin (LTF), lysozyme (LZM), and tenascin C (TNC)], as well as the metabolic profile (2-oxoglutaric acid, butyric acid, caproic acid, 6`-sialyllactose, lacto-n-neooctaose, myo-inositol, isoleucine, leucine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and uridine) found in breast milk at the time of birth (colostrum), during exclusive breast feeding (6 ± 4 weeks postpartum), and following the introduction of solids into the infants diet (6 ± 3 months postpartum) are associated with suboptimal infant growth.